Photo: Kirk Murray/University of Iowa

Mastodons once lumbered across North America. A member of the same animal family as mammoths and modern-day elephants, these ancient creatures roamed for millions of years, but died out in the end of the Pleistocene, around 10,500 years ago. Their decline coincided with several other critical changes, including the receding of the Ice Age glaciers and the spread of human beings across the continent. Discovering a fossil from this time period is an exciting chance to learn more about a time of transition. Intriguingly, a mastodon skull recently excavated from an Iowa riverbed sheds light on this ancient era.

The remains of the mastodon, scientifically known as Mammut americanum, were discovered after a local of rural Wayne County, Iowa, posted a photo of himself holding a large, unearthed bone which turned out to be a mastodon femur. Archeologists from the University of Iowa pursued this lead all the way to the muddy banks of a creek. In the bank, they discovered a tusk, seemingly attached to a skull. Further excavating proved this supposition correct.

The 2-foot tusk that projected from the massive skull offers intriguing possibilities for the researchers. The tusk formation can actually reveal quite a lot about the creature. “Apparently there are techniques now to determine how many calves a female mastodon had that get recorded as a chemical signature because of the changes in the body chemistry during the pregnancy and the birth,” John Doershuk, Iowa’s state archaeologist, told Iowa Public Radio. “And that gets recorded in the tusks.”

Discovered near the creek during the excavation were tools crafted in stone used by early human residents of the area. While the mastodon skull dates to 13,600 years ago, the tools are more recent by a couple millennia. However, at the time the mastodon frolicked through Iowa, the earliest human inhabitants of the state were arriving.

“We’re really hoping to find evidence of human interaction with this creature—perhaps the projectile points and knives that were used to kill the animal and do initial butchering,” archeologist Doershuk said in a statement. “There’s also potential evidence on the bones themselves—there could be identifiable cut marks.”

While human activity and climate change combined to cause the decline of the mastodon, this individual could tell a unique story of interacting species.

Discovered in a riverbed in Iowa, a mastodon skull tells the story of an ending Ice Age and burgeoning human presence in what is now the American midwest.

Photo: Kirk Murray/University of Iowa

A protruding tusk could unveil much more about the creature.

Photo: Kirk Murray/University of Iowa

“Apparently there are techniques now to determine how many calves a female mastodon had that get recorded as a chemical signature because of the changes in the body chemistry during the pregnancy and the birth. And that gets recorded in the tusks.”

Photo: Kirk Murray/University of Iowa

h/t: [Smithsonian Magazine]

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READ: 13,600-Year-Old Mastodon Skull Discovered in Iowa Riverbank

McMurdo Station in Antarctica. (Photo: Marco Feldmann/FH Aachen via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0)

When people think of Antarctica, they likely think of vast expanses of barren ice and very few colors beyond the snowy white visible on the horizon. However, despite the admitted prevalence of ice on the continent, there is plant life too. This vegetation survives on photosynthesis, making sustenance out of sunlight. But until recently, the extent of plant life on Antarctica was not well known, as so much of the continent is remote and rarely visited. A new study published in Nature Geoscience uses satellite imagery to map and quantify the plant life across the continent for the first time ever.

Most of the plant life on Antarctica falls into one of three categories: moss, lichen, and algae. These plants absorb carbon from the atmosphere, and they help process nutrients in the soil. Tracking their presence on the continent is critical to assessing conservation efforts as well as keeping an eye on the effects of climate change.

As ice melts, more plant life may result in the gap created. Researchers from the University of Edinburgh partnered with the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, the British Antarctic Survey, and the Scottish Association for Marine Science to examine satellite imagery from a satellite of the European Space Agency.

The researchers also took measurements on the ground during summer expeditions. They combined their aerial and on-ground observations to estimate that there is about 45 square kilometers (17.4 square miles) of photosynthetic life on the continent. It is not evenly distributed, but rather 80% is present on the Antarctic Peninsula and nearby islands.

Peter Fretwell, one of the paper authors, noted in a statement, “Getting an accurate map of the of photosynthetic life of the continent gives us a baseline for assessing future change. As the continent warms and ice melts, we expect that areas of rock outcrop will expand, and vegetation will colonize more ground. This new map enables us to monitor these consequences of climate change.”

The first full survey of Antarctic vegetation across the continent has demonstrated the effect climate change has had on plant life.

Arctic vegetation springs up. (Photo: Walshaw et al., f. A Thgomson)

Photosynthetic life of different sorts. (Photo: Walshaw et al.)

Antarctica's ice sheets have changed a lot since 1985. (Photo: Wikimedia Commons, Public domain)

h/t: [IFL Science]

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Archeological findings from the road site. (Photo: Sue Potts)

History can seem distant and obscure. It can be hard to imagine scenes of everyday life long ago. But for several classes of lucky children in England, history came alive this year.

The Brightwell-cum-Sotwell Primary School sits in a charming little village in Oxfordshire, England. It has playing fields standard for children's activities. But little did they know, they were playing football atop history. Surveys in December 2023 revealed the presence of a Roman road beneath the field, and succeeding excavations have revealed a piece of Roman history. Meanwhile the children at the school have gotten a thrilling history lesson, up close and personal to the relics of Roman times.

The Brightwell Village History Group partnered with the Wallingford Historical and Archaeological Society to explore the field's potential. Surveys and a test pit heightened the promise. History enthusiasts had long suspected an early Roman road passed through the area. Excavations began in the summer, turning up a road that cuts along the field. Made of cobblestone, the road is actually two layers, one older and one newer paved above.

“It’s believed to be one of the first roads in England from 43 CE, which is the year the Romans invaded,” Jason Debney, of the Brightwell Village History Group, announced to the Oxford Mail.

The digging in the schoolyard was an exciting opportunity to introduce the young pupils of the school to Roman history, which is taught in the fourth year of the school. The students, on the other side of a safety barrier, got to watch the work of the archeologists. They could ask them questions and learn more about the career as well.

“To have the children come out here every day and watch the dig progress has been fabulous for them,” Sue Potts, head teacher, told BBC News. “It’s not every day you find a Roman road beneath your school field.”

Potts also noted, “I’ve often found them gathered round the fence having a watch, seeing what’s going on, looking at the artifacts and what’s been dug up or just asking questions.”

The archeologists clearly loved the company and enthusiasm of the children, while the kids themselves appreciated the rare opportunity.

Beneath a playing field adjacent to an English school lay a Roman road, undiscovered for millennia.

It is believed to be one of the earliest Roman roads in Britain, built upon the conquering of the island by the Roman Empire.

h/t: [Smithsonian Magazine]

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Deep Sky Labs as envisioned. (Photo: Deep Sky Labs)

Excess carbon dioxide, produced by mankind with particular vigor since the Industrial Revolution, is a prime driver of the climate crisis. Though it’s important to limit and stave off the production of carbon dioxide, it’s proven difficult in a society filled with gas-guzzling cars and smoke-belching factories. So as carbon dioxide continues to pour into the atmosphere, there needs to be efforts to remove it. The technology exists, but the infrastructure needs to be created en masse to counter its production. Luckily, Deep Sky, a Canadian carbon removal company, is creating a pioneering carbon removal facility in Canada to test different methods of removal.

The project is called Deep Sky Labs, drawing from the innovative scientific nature of laboratories. The facility will be constructed in a remote part of Alberta, Canada. Its creators are touting it as the “world’s first cross-technology carbon removal innovation and commercialization centre.” It will have space to test 10 different methods of direct air capture of carbon in our atmosphere. The ultimate goal of Deep Sky is to scale and incentivize carbon capture, so finding the most effective capture methods is critical.

Carbon capture requires energy to power the machines that filter our air. This energy can itself come from unclean sources. To avoid this issue, Deep Sky Labs will be entirely solar powered. Once carbon is removed from the air, it will be pumped into safe storage far underground.

Deep Sky is also creating “high integrity carbon credits” to fund the endeavor. Over 10 years, 30,000 tons of carbon will be removed from the air. While ultimately it only accounts for the carbon production of about 220 people a year, this is a starting point for expansion. There lab will be a brain trust of sorts, bringing together innovators in the climate technology space to fight an urgent fight of which carbon capture is a critical component.

Deep Sky Labs will be the “world’s first cross-technology carbon removal innovation and commercialization centre,” dedicated to pulling carbon dioxide from our atmosphere to counter climate change.

Deep Sky: Website
h/t: [IFL Science]

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Madame Decourcelle.

Paris is a city of many stories, Olympic and otherwise, including the legacy of some of the first female taxi drivers at the dawn of the 20th century. The taxi cab is a ubiquitous city sight even today. While women have always been a minority in the field of taxi drivers, they have participated since the beginning of driving motor cars for hire. In 1908, the same year the Ford Model T would roll off assembly lines to make history in America, two exceptional Parisian women paved the way for female taxi drivers. Mademoiselle Gaby Pohlen and Madame Inès Decourcelle defied gender stereotypes to establish themselves in a man's driving world.

Gaby Pohlen was a daredevil who enjoyed traveling, riding bikes, and driving cars. According to The Motor-Car Journal in 1908, she began driving in 1902. To drive a taxi cab, as motorized cars began to take on this previously horse-drawn role, she would need to be both licensed and hired by a taxi company. Pohlen received her license to drive a motor taxi in 1908, but as she told the reporter for the magazine, the trouble was getting hired. After repeated rejections, she was at last accepted by a cab company. She became one of the first female motor cab drivers in history, joined by Madame Inès Decourcelle also in 1908. There appears to be some debate over which woman technically hit the streets first, but certainly, both were pioneers.

In 1908, Pohlen expressed a desire to drive in a “speed race.” Whether she ever managed this feat or not, female drivers were edging into a man's world as more and more people purchased cars. In 1909, Dorothy Levitt published a “chatty” manual for female motorists. Levitt was a champion car and boat racer, and she became a champion of women drivers.

Her work and the pioneering female taxi drivers of Paris were conscious of the bold new frontiers open to women who had the skill and daring to drive their own cars. While cars remain a stereotypically male passion today, a long history of women loving the freedom and speed of the open road or making their living on wheels makes the history of the car equally a woman's tale.

Paris is a city of many stories, Olympic and otherwise, including the legacy of some of the first female taxi drivers at the dawn of the 20th century.

Madame Decourcelle and her taxi.

h/t: [Open Culture]

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Photo: riosihombing@gmail.com/Depositphotos

In elementary school, children learn about the water cycle. From evaporation to condensation into clouds to precipitation as rain, water cycles between land and sky. But when did this process begin? Earth itself is 4.5 billion years old, but freshwater was not immediately present. However, a new paper published in Nature Geoscience suggests Earth experienced its first rain earlier than previously thought. In fact, by examining the isotopes within some of Earth's oldest minerals, the researchers believe the hydrological cycle began 4 billion years ago.

The researchers examined Hadean zircon crystals from the Jack Hills in Australia. This remote dry region boasts these crystals, the oldest terrestrial bits of our planet. Zircons are minerals, inside which lurk isotopes that the team examined through secondary-ion mass spectrometry. They discovered traces of contact with water four billion years ago.

“We were able to date the origins of the hydrological cycle, which is the continuous process through which water moves around Earth and is crucial for sustaining ecosystems and supporting life on our planet,” shares lead author Dr. Hamed Gamaleldien. “By examining the age and oxygen isotopes in tiny crystals of the mineral zircon, we found unusually light isotopic signatures as far back as four billion years ago.

Such light oxygen isotopes are typically the result of hot, fresh water altering rocks several kilometers below Earth’s surface. Evidence of fresh water this deep inside Earth challenges the existing theory that Earth was completely covered by ocean four billion years ago.”

The presence of light oxygen isotopes is crucial, as these can only be found when the water is meteoric—meaning it fell from the sky. In the end, these oxygen isotopes change the known timeline of Earth's formation.

“This discovery not only sheds light on Earth’s early history but also suggests landmasses and fresh water set the stage for life to flourish within a relatively short time frame—less than 600 million years after the planet formed,” notes co-author Dr. Hugo Olierook of Curtin University’s School of Earth and Planetary Sciences.

“The findings mark a significant step forward in our understanding of Earth’s early history and open doors for further exploration into the origins of life.”

It demonstrates that very shortly (in the span of millions of years), Earth was cool enough to support liquid water despite its hot beginnings. Rainy days, it turns out, have been around for four billion years.

Scientists have discovered evidence of Earth's earliest rains in Hadean zircon crystals, suggesting liquid water fell from the sky four billion years ago.

This 4.4 billion-year-old zircon crystal is re-writing Earth's history. (Photo: John Valley)

h/t: [Science Alert]

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Photo: IMTMPHOTO/Depositphotos

Aging is difficult, both emotionally and physically. Knuckles may develop arthritis in the joints, while hair turns grays and wrinkles crowd the corners of our eyes. Eventually, cognitive function may slow as the body, too, is no longer able to do what was once easy. Everyone deals with aging in different ways, sometimes accepting and sometimes fighting the tides of time. But scientists are still learning a lot about the process of human aging which can help improve health outcomes at all phases of life. A new study, published in Nature Aging, has recently revealed that the process of aging is not linear but rather has powerful accelerated periods around certain ages, particularly 44 and 60 years old.

Most would assume that each year older would equate to our bodies aging and changing one year's-worth more. However, certain periods bring on dramatic changes. The study followed 108 volunteers who every few months for months or years let researchers analyze the products of their body. Stool, blood, nasal, skin, and oral samples were taken. The researchers then assessed these samples for 135,000 types of molecules and microbes contained within or on the samples. Changes in the levels of a molecule like RNA or the presence of a bacteria can tell them about how our bodies react to aging.

Large shifts in the molecules and microbes studied indicated periods of more intense aging change. The first occurred around age 44, the second at about 60. As the study only examined ages 25 to 75, the period after 75 remains less certain, but prior studies have suggested 78 may also be an intense age. Initially, the researchers thought the dramatic changes around 44 were perimenopausal and that women accounted for this data. However, men show significant shifts as well.

While there may be other factors such as changing behaviors in middle age which affect the data, it clearly is a time of intense aging. Similarly, after 60, risk greatly rises for certain conditions such as cardiovascular conditions. The body after 44 is less able to process alcohol. And after 60, metabolism drops significantly.

“We’re not just changing gradually over time. There are some really dramatic changes,” paper author Michael Snyder of the Center for Genomics and Personalized Medicine at Stanford University said. “It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s—and that’s true no matter what class of molecules you look at.”

A recent study took a look at how the human body ages and found that rather than linearly, it seems we age in bursts.

Photo: ALEBLOSHKA/Depositphotos

From 25 to 75, our major aging events occur around 44 and 60 years of age.

Photo: TAWNG/Depositphotos

h/t: [The Guardian]

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An artist imagines the Chicxulub impact. (Photo: Donald E. Davis/NASA via Wikimedia Commons, Public domain)

Once upon a time, dinosaurs roamed the Earth. Then, 66 million years ago, a gigantic chunk of space rock hurtled into the planet, creating a massive crater and raising clouds of dust and debris. Now known as the Chicxulub impactor, this asteroid obliterated thousands of species, including the massive land-roaming dinosaurs of yore. Yet much mystery still surrounds this event despite ample geological and paleontological research. A new paper in Science has helped solve one question: what type of space rock crashed down into Earth? As it turns out, a carbonaceous asteroid is the most likely answer based on the presence of Ruthenium, an element very rare on our planet.

Mario Fischer-Gödde of the University of Cologne, Germany, took a new tactic to help prove the recent contention put forward by scientists that the impactor was a carbonaceous asteroid. Carbonaceous asteroids, or C-type asteroids, are common in space, high in carbon content, and they are typically found on the far reaches of our system's asteroid belt. This means it’s from the outer solar system, beyond Jupiter.

Despite being quite common in space, siliceous asteroids are much more likely to hit Earth. Made of silicate and nickel-iron among other materials, these S-type asteroids fly closer to Earth on the inner side of the asteroid belt.

“So far, Chicxulub, among the 500-million-year-old impactors, seems to be a unique and rare case of a carbonaceous-type asteroid hitting Earth,” Dr. Fischer-Gödde told The New York Times.

To identify if the dino-killing asteroid was an S-type or a C-type, the researchers examined what is known as the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary. Around the world, the debris from the impact in present-day Mexico settled and formed a thin layer of rock in the geological record. This can be seen from South Dakota to India to Italy.

It divides the two eras in its name, marking geological time with rock high in iridium. Within this boundary, the researchers discovered isotopes of ruthenium. Ruthenium is an element, a metal, which is quite rare on Earth. But its presence in the K-Pg boundary indicates the asteroid's nature.

“It’s the nail in the coffin,” Dr. Fischer-Gödde said. “This ruthenium isotope signature that we measure cannot be anything else other than a carbonaceous asteroid.” This leaves many more questions about the asteroid and those dark days for the dinosaurs that paved the way for our own time.

The Chicxulub impactor, the asteroid which extinguished the dinosaurs, was likely a rare carbonaceous asteroid, raising new questions for scientists.

Ruthenium crystals in gas phase. (Photo: Periodictableru via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 3.0)

h/t: [The New York Times]

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A Greenland shark photographed in 2007 at Admiralty Inlet, Nunavut. (Photo: Hemming1952 via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Aging is a process all living beings seem to go through, but certainly not in the same ways. Currently, the oldest living person is 117, while the oldest living dog and cat are 24 years and 28, respectively. Some animals, like parrots and tortoises, can clock many decades, with species such as the Galapagos tortoise easily outstripping human lifetimes. But no animal has mastered longevity with the finesse of the Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus), also known as the gurry or grey shark. These large, slow-moving Arctic recluses can live up to 500 years. Scientists are still hoping to learn the secrets of this long life to better understand both the species and biological aging processes.

The Greenland shark is a variety of sleeper shark and one of the largest shark species. It stretches an impressive length of up to 23 feet and weighs in at about 1.5 tons. It typically inhabits the chilly, deep waters of the Arctic, although it can migrate to other regions. Despite being a fierce predator, it is quite slow-moving and enjoys a lazy scavenge. The massive beasts are listed as vulnerable. Their incredibly slow gestation period of about eight to eighteen years does not inspire confidence in their rebound ability, nor does the fact that they only reach sexual maturity around age 150.

How does all this reproducing take so long? Well, the extended timeframe is possible due to the record-setting life span of the Greenland shark, the longest-living vertebrate. While scientists continue to investigate just how long this species can persist, testing of one individual's eyes with radiocarbon technology produced a range of possible birthdates between 1504 and 1744. This shark may have swum at the same time Shakespeare and Queen Elizabeth I lived, and he certainly predated the American Revolution.

Scientists are still working on the answer as to why these sharks have such longevity, but it is possible that metabolism may play a role. Recent work has revealed the sharks' metabolism does not seem to slow in the same way as aging humans. Enzyme activity preservers, suggesting they may be able to resist the slowing of aging.

“My best guess would be that the deep waters of the Arctic can be a challenging environment to live in, where an animal such as the Greenland shark may not have consistent access to plenty of food, and they may not frequently be in contact with other Greenland sharks,”  shared biologist Ewan Camplisson, a doctoral student at the University of Manchester. “Therefore, as a species with low natural mortality rates, their optimal life strategy would be one of a slow growth and building reserves of energy, so that when they do interact with the opposite sex they are in a suitable condition to reproduce.

I believe that if we can work out how the Greenland shark lives so long and how they seem to be so resilient to age-related diseases (such as cardiac disease), we may be able to improve the quality of life within the elderly human population.”

Greenland sharks are an ancient species, living deep within cold ocean waters where they can reach incredible ages of up to 500 years old.

h/t: [Science Alert, Yahoo]

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Marine centaurs in the tomb's many paintings. (Photo: Superintendency of Archaeology, Fine Arts and Landscape of Naples)

Ancient tombs reveal much about the lives of the people who once lived, but now lie entombed. Fascinating discoveries have been unearthed in tombs, including ancient liquid wine and jars of provisions buried to supply the deceased in their journey. In addition to burial goods, the human remains also tell a story—for example, two Neanderthal skeletons found embracing suggest affections long past. The Tomb of Cerberus—discovered in 2023 in Naples, Italy—has yielded discoveries of both goods and human remains. The latter were recently exposed when a coffin was opened after 2,000 years.

The tomb is located in a necropolis, an ancient Roman burial ground. (A necropolis is a city of the dead, and in this case the city holds many secrets waiting for archeologists to decipher them.) It is nearby Giugliano, a city in Naples. Discovered in 2023, the tomb is both lavish and well-preserved. It has since been dubbed the Tomb of Cerberus, named for Cerberus, the three-headed mythical dog which appears throughout the frescoes of the tomb. The size and design of the tomb indicates it belonged to a wealthy Roman family. In addition to the dogs, ichthyocentaurs also appear in the decorations. These are marine centaurs, part man, horse, and fish.

Within the tomb, archeologists discovered three altars with vases where offerings would be made. Funeral beds boasting coffins containing the remains of the ancient family members were also present. To investigate, archeologists poked a miniature camera into one coffin. They sighted a skeleton draped in a mineralized shroud, just as it had lain for 2,000 years. The coffin has since been opened to reveal the wealthy occupant who was laid to rest surrounded by glass jars that held perfume and toiletry ointments for the deceased. Continuing the theme of personal hygiene, a strigil was also discovered. This tool was used to scrape the skin clean.

Many more details may soon emerge, as a team of researchers across disciplines examines the artifacts. Textile samples are studied by experts in ancient fabrics, while other experts focus on further samples. Analysis of the bottles has already revealed pollen from wormwood and goosefoot. Genetic research into the skeleton itself will add to the picture of the past captured within the tomb.

The 2,000-year-old Tomb of Cerberus contains ancient Roman burials, one of which was recently revealed as archeologists opened an ancient coffin.

The Tomb of Cerberus as discovered in 2023. (Photo: Superintendency of Archaeology, Fine Arts and Landscape of Naples)

Inside the tomb, archeologists discovered three altars with vases where offerings would be made.

Discoveries inside the tomb. (Photo: Superintendency of Archaeology, Fine Arts and Landscape of Naples)

There is still much yet to be discovered about ancient civilizations through this necropolis, its artifacts, and the human remains found on site.

The Roman necropolis in Naples. (Photo: Superintendency of Archaeology, Fine Arts and Landscape of Naples)

h/t: [Smithsonian Magazine]

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